Learning Theories

Learning-Theories
Postscript
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The learning theories presented in this section are based on an accumulation of empirical evidence and, as with any scientific theory, are susceptable to modification or rejection.

Much of the earliest research into learning was undertaken by Piaget (Section 14.2) who developed his theory of cognitive development through observation and interviews with young children. His ideas on how new information is assimilated lead to Constructivist theories (Section 14.4).

The information processing models (a version based upon Ausubel's (Ausubel 1968) ``Meaningful Learning'' theory and the ideas of Ashcraft (Ashcraft 1994) is presented below (Section 14.5)) has proved a useful model for rationalising the observed difficulties in learning and in predicting ways in which learning may be successfully enhanced.

Ausubel's Meaningful Learning Theory

Ausubel 1968

Ausubel, D. P., Educational Psychology: A Cognitive View. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc, 1963.

Here Ausubel states that ``If I had to reduce all of educational psychology to one principle, I would say this: the most important single factor influencing learning is what the learner already knows. Ascertain this and teach him accordingly''.

West and Fensham 1974

West, L. T. H. and Fensham, P. J., Prior Knowledge and The Learning of Science-A Review of Ausubel's theory of the process.. Studies in Science Education, 1(1), 61-81, 1974.

Suggests that meaningful learning occurs when the learner's appropriate existing knowledge interacts with the new learning. Rote learning occurs when no such interaction takes place.

Ausubel and Robinson 1969

Ausubel, D. P. and Robinson, F. G., School Learning: An Introduction to Educational Psychology. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1969.

The following are thought to be the most likely circumstances which result in rote learning:

1. the material to be learned lacks logical meaning,
2. the learner lacks the relevant ideas in his own cognitive structure,
3. the individual lacks a meaningful learning set (a disposition to link new concepts, propositions, and examples, to prior knowledge and experience)

Ebenezer 1992

Ebenezer, J. V., Making Chemistry Learning More Meaningful. Journal of Chemistry Education, 69(4), 464-467, 1992.

In this article Ebenezer presents an overview of Ausubal's meaningful learning theory and then discusses the use of concept maps and V diagrams to elicit and restructure students' prior knowledge.

Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

A short introduction to Piaget and his theory of cognitive development can be found in Topic B.

Piaget 63

Piaget J, The Psychology of Intelligence. N.J.: Littlefield, Adams, 1963.

Piagian thought in his own words.

Fuller et. al.

Fuller, R. G., Karpus, R. and Lawson, A. E., Can Physics Develop Reasoning?. Physics Today, 30(2), 23-28, 1977.

In this paper the authors present a review of Piaget's cognitive development and then proceed with a discussion of how, through physics instruction, students can be encouraged to develop formal reasoning skills.

Introductory Books on Piaget's Work

Wadworth 79

Wadworth B. J., Piaget's Theory of cognitive development. N.Y.: Longman, 1979.

This book provides a general over view of Piaget's work. It is aimed at Educationalists and psychologists who are new Piaget.

Ginsberg 87

Ginsberg, H., Piaget's Theory of intellectual development. N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1987.

Provides a summary of Piaget's theories. Ideal for those looking to ease themselves into Piagetian thought.

Constructivism

Herron 1984

Herron, J. D., Using Research in Chemical Education to Improve My Teaching. Journal of Chemistry Education, 61(10), 850-854, 1984.

In this paper the author presents a short introduction to constructivism and then discusses how this has influenced his lecture and laboratory instruction and assessment.

Coll and Taylor 2001

Coll, R. K. and Taylor, T. G. N., Using Constructivism to Inform Tertiary Chemistry Pedagogy. Chemistry Education: Research and Practice in Europe, 2(3), 215-226, 2001.

This review (has some 95 references) considers some of the implications and difficulties associated with a constructivist view of learning. The authors conclude that ``constructivism offers tertiary chemistry educators some valuable insights into classroom practice, but that appropriate pragmatism with regard to pedagogy is more important than adherence to any particular metaphysical belief system''.

Information Processing Models

``These models focus on learning and the learner and suggests mechanisms in the learning process'' (Johnstone 1993).

Ashcraft 1994

Ashcraft, M. H., Human Memory and Cognition. 2nd Edition. New York: Harper Collins, 1994.

Provides a comprehensive treatment of cognitive psychology, including information processing models.

Johnstone 1993

Johnstone, A. H., The Development of Chemistry Teaching: A Changing Response to Changing Demand. Journal of Chemistry Education, 70(9), 701-705, 1993.

Within this paper Johnstone presents a broad perspective on the philosophy of chemistry teaching. In particular, he presents a model of information processing, see  Figure 14.1, which draws on the ideas of Ashcraft and Ausubel. In this model the Perception Filter receives signals from the outside world and admits some of them to the Working Memory (see Topic 9). Clearly the perception filter is constantly bombarded by stimuli, but an individual is able to select or filter out certain signals for further considerations. This filtering process is influenced by what is already held in the Long Term Memory (LTM): i.e. aids the selection of important from unimportant information. Meanwhile, the Working Memory (WM), see Topic 9, of limited capacity, is the space where information is held for decoding, interaction (with information drawn from the LTM) and encoding (for storage in the LTM). New information is most efficiently stored if it is linked to that already held in the LTM.

Figure 14.1: Information Processing Model of Learning. View a Larger Image Here

General Works

Herron and Nurrenbern 1999

Herron, J. D. and Nurrenbern, S. C., Chemical Education Research: Improving Chemistry Learning. Journal of Chemistry Education, 76(10), 1354-1361, 1999.

This article presents a brief introduction to many aspects of chemistry education research including a brief discussion of behaviourist and constructivist theories.