Attitudes

Attitudes
Postscript
Portable Document Format

Here only attitudes directly relating to science education are considered. These are:

• Attitudes toward science subjects.
• Attitudes toward the learning of these subjects.
• Social attitudes arising through the study of a particular scientific theme.
• The so-called scientific method.

Note that the word persuasion is an often used term within the field of attitudes. However, here it has a specific meaning, namely: Persuasion relates to a specific message which may promote attitude change.

Reasoned Action and Planned Behaviour Theories

The following theories are often quoted in the literature, and so have been included here so as to provide convenient references for those wishing to pursue them further.

Crawley and Koballa JR.1994

Crawley, F. E. and Koballa JR., T. R., Attitude Research in Science Education: Contemporary Models and Methods. Science Education, 78(1), 35-55, 1994.

In this paper the authors provide an overview of the ``Planned Behaviour'' and ``Reasoned Action'' theories of attitudes and human behaviour. There is also a discussion of persuasion as a means of changing attitudes, research methods, and application, to determine whether persuasive methods can be utilised to increase the numbers of students enrolling in high school chemistry. The authors report that,``findings from choice-framing research suggest that students are most likely to become risk-takers and decide to enrol in chemistry when they are confronted with information about lost educational, career, and other opportunities when chemistry is avoided''.

Stead 1985

Stead, K., An Exploration, Using Ajzen and Fishbein's Theory of Reasoned Action, of Students Intention to Study Or Not Study Science. Research in Science Education, 15, 76-85, 1985.

In this paper Stead suggests that ``Ajzen and Fischbein's theory provides, both an instrumental technique for collecting requisite data and an explicit rationale for the analysis, description, prediction and application of generated findings.''

Ajzen and Fischbein 1980

Ajzen, I. and Fischbein, M., Understanding Attitudes and Predicting Social Behaviour. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1980.

The Theory of reasoned action is presented in this book.

Attitude Change

The two extremes processes creating attitude change are:

Internal:

attitude change occurs through motivation, desire and control of the individual

External:

attitude change arises through outside pressure, forcing a change in attitude and is not always under the control of the individual.

The Internal Mechanism of Attitude Change

Festinger 1957

Festinger, , A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1957.

This book provides a full discussion of dissonance theory. This influential theory attempts to explain attitude change in terms of an internal dimension. Dissonances is a psychological state arising when new contradictory information disrupts the existing equilibrium amongst elements of the cognitive system: leading to internal inconsistencies. This is an uncomfortable state. That is why, in order to reduce inconsistencies, a new, or change in, attitude may occur. Ways in which dissonance may be reduced are:

• Change the existing elements of knowledge to make the earlier cognitive system, and newly obtained knowledge, consistent. May lead to changes in both attitude and behaviour.
• Find, and accept, the consistent elements from the source of dissonance: does not, in general, lead to attitude change.
• Deny the importance of the new cognition. Attitude is not changed but earlier attitude becomes even stronger.

The External Mechanisms of Attitude Change

Persuasion and its role in attitude change was pioneered by Carl Hovland and his colleagues see the following papers:

Hovland, et. al. 1957

Hovland, C. I., Luchins,A. S., Mandell, W., Cambell, E. H., Brock, T. C., McGuire, W. J., Feierabend, R. L. and Anderson, N. H. (Eds), The Order of Presentation in Persuasion. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1957.

or

Hovland, et. al. 1953

Hovland, C. I., Janis, I. L. and Kelly, J. J., Communication and Persuasion. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1953.

Much of the persuasion research has investigated the role of an external message on attitude change and its influence on behaviour.

Petty and Cacioppo 1981

Petty, R. E. and Cacioppo, J. T., Attitudes and Persuasion: Classic and Contemporary Approaches. Dubuque: William C. Brown, 1981.

Attitude Measurement

Osgood et. al. 1957

Osgood, C. E., Suci, C. J. and Tannenbaum, P. H., The Measurement of Meaning. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1957.

The Semantic-Differential method (or Osgood Method) was not originally developed for attitude measurement but nonetheless has been proven to be a useful measure of attitudes. The method is, most commonly, based on a seven-point rating scale with bipolar word-pairs placed at opposite ends of the scale, for an example see Figure 13.1

Figure 13.1: Semantic-Differential Scale. View a Larger Image Here

Likert, R

Likert, R., A Technique for the Measurement of Attitudes. Archives of Psychology, 140, 5-53, 1932.

The Likert method is one of the most popular attitude measuring tools. This method consists of a series of statements, each with an evaluative scale consisting (usually) of five positions running from strongly agree, through neutral, to strongly disagree. A respondent is required to read the given statement and then indicate, on the corresponding scale, the degree to which they agree or disagree with the statement.

Gardner 1996

Gardner, P. L, The Dimensionality of Attitude Scales: A Widely Misunderstood Idea. International Journal of Science Education, 18(8), 913-919, 1996.

Often, researchers have scored and summed individual items in attitude tests. Here the underlying assumption is that the items reflect a common construct. In this paper the author discusses the implications of this assumption and presents case studies of poor and good instrument design.

Attitudes toward the Study of Science

Durrani 1998

Durrani, M., Students Prefer To Mix And Match. Physics World, 6, p.9., 1998.

``The declining popularity of science is a well-known fact. The number of 18-year-olds taking science and math at A-level [in England and wales] fell from 42% in 1963 to just 16% in 1993...''

Osborne et. al. 1998

Osborne, J., Driver, R. and Simon, S., Attitudes to Science: Issues and Concerns. School Science Review, 79(288), 27-33, 1998.

In this article the authors attempt to summarise what is known about young people's attitudes to science, how these impact on subject choice and achievement. The authors ``argued that the recent introduction of compulsory science education to 16 in England, Wales and Northern Ireland has not succeeded in changing the level of interest in science and that attention needs to be turned to the content of the curriculum to make it more relevant and engaging.''

Woolnough 1994

Woolnough, B. E., Why Students Choose Physics, or Reject it.. Physics Education, 29(11), 368-373, 1994.

In this paper the author reports on some research findings into the interacting factors encouraging or discouraging secondary school students toward or away from higher education and careers in physics.

Reid and Skryabina 2002

Reid, N and Skryabina, E., Attitudes Towards Physics. Research in Science and Technological Education, 20(1), 67-81, 2002.

In this study into attitudes toward physics, it was found that for those students who had experienced an applications led school physics course there was a positive attitude toward physics. Moreover, it was found that university students continued to seek this dimension in their studies. In addition the notion that positive attitudes toward physics need to be fostered early in secondary education was confirmed. Skryabina also notes that the, Scottish Secondary Educations', applications led physics course remains very popular.

Stokking 2000

Stokking, K. M., Predicting The Choice of physics in secondary Education. International Journal of Science Education, 22(2), 1261-1283, 2000.

In this paper the author suggests that the main predictor of choice of physics in secondary education is perceived future relevance. Moreover, Stokking reports that the overall consensus is that curricula which are orientated toward everyday life, with a participative approach, result in well motivated students.

Reviews and General Papers

Johnstone and Reid 1981

Johnstone, A. H. and Reid, N., Towards a Model for Attitude Change. European Journal of Science Education, 3(2), 205-212, 1981.

In this brief overview of major findings (as of 1981) the authors draw on these finding to produce a model of attitude change.

Ramsden 1998

Ramsden, J. M., Missiion Impossible?: Can Anything Be Done About Attitudes To Science?. International Journal of Science Education, 20(2), 125-137, 1998.

Here the author presents an overview of key terms, methodology and purpose of research into pupils' attitudes to science. Also presents an agenda for future research into attitudes toward science.

Gardner 1975

Gardner, P., Attitudes to Science: A Review. Studies in Science Education, 2, 1-41, 1975.

In this review of the literature Gardner observed that, science lessons became more ``masculine'' in the course of time which is used as a possible explanation for an observed decline of girls' interests toward lessons at secondary school.

Gender

Reid and Skryabina 2002

Reid, N and Skryabina, E., Gender and physics. International Journal of Science Education, in press (2002), 2002.

The dominant emphasis of this paper is gender issues as they relate to the study of physics at secondary school. However, references also cover higher education. In addition, unwarranted assumptions concerning the nature of number and scaling methods are discussed.

Books

Chaiken and Eagly 1993

Chaiken, S. and Eagly, A. H., The Psychology of Attitudes. San Diago: Harcourt Bruce Jovannovich, 1993.

This is a comprehensive theoretical textbook on the psychology of attitudes and related studies on attitude measurement and social cognition